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Pathological Endocrine Diseases Affect The Thyroid And The Adrenal Glands  Addison's disease:-  It is hypo functioning of the adrenal cortex. Glucocorticoids are produced in deficient amounts. Hypoglycemia, excretions of large amounts of water and salt, weakness, and weight loss are symptoms of this condition. Cushing's disease It involves hyperfunctioning of the adrenal cortex with increased glucocorticoid secretions. Hyperplasia of the adrenal cortex results from excessive stimulation of the gland by ACTH. Obesity, moon like fullness of the face, excessive deposition of fat on the back called "buffalo hump," and high blood pressure are produced by excessive secretions of the adrenal steroid. Homeostasis self-regulating process by which a living organism can maintain internal stability while adjusting to changing external conditions. Hyperkalemia :- Excessive calcium in blood above normal Hyponatremia Deficient amount of sodium in the blood Ketoacidosis A primary com...

               B lood Pressure (BP) It is the arterial pressure exerted by the blood on the arterial walls.  The maximum pressure during ventricular systole is called systolic pressure The systolic pressure is generated by the force of contraction of the heart  the maximum pressure during ventricular diastole is called diastolic pressure.  The diastolic pressure is chiefly due to arteriolar tone (peripheral resistance).  Heart has to pump the blood against the diastolic pressure which is a direct load on the heart.  Normally the blood pressure is roughly 120/80 mm Hg, the systolic pressure ranging from 110-130, and the diastolic pressure from 70-80.  The difference between systolic and diastolic pressure is called 'pulse pressure'. BP is universally measured by auscultating the brachial artery at the elbow joint

Classification of ligament & muscle sprains   Ligament sprains Grade l/ mild sprain  :- Few ligament fibers torn, stability maintained.  Grade ll/ Moderate sprain :- Partial rupture, increased laxity but no gross instability.  Grade lll/ severe sprain:- Complete rupture, gross instability.  Muscle strains Grade l/mild strain :- Few muscle fibers torn, minimum loss of strength and pain on muscle contraction.  Grade ll/ moderate strain:  Approximately half of muscle fibers torn, significant muscle weakness and loss of function. Moderate to severe pain on isometric contraction.  Grade lll/ severe strain:- Complete tear of the muscle, significant muscle weakness and severe loss of function. Minimum to no pain on isometric contraction. 

Positioning for Cerebral palsy Lying:- Supine --- a pillow placed under the head, or a pillow on both sides of the head and shoulders often promotes symmetry.  In Prone :- Children are often more symmetrical in this position, but a prone wedge board is used to raise the upper torso off the floor so that they use their hands to stabilize and heads to extend.  W- Sitting:- T his position is to be avoided because of the rein forcement of the flexed, adducted and internally rotated position of hips.  Standing :-Standing prevents the Equinus deformity at the ankle. While standing the hips and knees should be extended hips slightly externally rotated and abducted knees should be straight and feet should be planti grade. 

  Piriformis test Tests : Piriformis involvement in Sciatic pain Procedure : Patient side lying on edge of bed with test leg upper most. Flex hip to 60° with knee flexed. Stabilize hip and apply downward pressure to knee.  Positive sign : Localized pain indicates tight piriformis. Pain with radiation indicates sciatic nerve involvement. 

Patients present with a variety of conditions, and assessment need to be adopted to suit their needs. This section provides a basic framework for the subjective and physical musculoskeletal assessment of a patient.  Subjective Examination Body chart Location of Current symptoms Type of pain Depth, Quality, Intensity of symptoms Intermittent or Constant Abnormal sensation (e.g. pins and needles, numbness)  Relationship of symptoms Check other relevant regions Behaviour of symptoms Aggravating factors Severity Irritability Daily activities/Functional limitations 24-hour behaviour (night pain)  Stage of the Condition Special Questions Red flags Spinal cord or cauda equina symptoms Bilateral extremity numbness/pins and needles Dizziness or other symptoms of vertebrobasilar insufficiency (diplopia, drop attacks, dysarthria, dysphagia, nausea)  History of present condition Mechanism of injury History of each symptomatic area Relationship of onset of each symptomatic area C...

Biopsy of nerve tissue:-  A specimen of nerve tissue is collected and examined microscopically to establish a diagnosis. Commonly used to diagnosis malignant Cerebral angiography X-rays of the brain are taken after a radiopaque substance is injected into the cerebral circulatory system. Visualizes arterial and venous circulation in the brain. CT (computed tomography) of the brain A computer-generated reconstruction of the brain is created from a series of x-ray images taken as cross-sections of the brain. These images (CT scans) are particularly valuable in differentiating the various tissues within the brain, such as tumors and lesions. In the case of a cerebrovascular accident (CVA).  Electroencephalography (EEG) The electrical potentials of the brain are recorded. Electrical changes associated with epilepsy, sleep disorders, tumors, hemorrhages, etc., can be detected. Also used to determine "brain death," which produces flat or silent EEG pattern Electromyography (EMG) ...